There is a gradual sharing of gender roles within the family Essay Example for Free

There is a steady sharing of sexual orientation jobs inside the family Essay Functionalism hypotheses contend that society shapes its people into various circles, these distinctions can be viewed as useful to the upkeep of social steadiness and concordance. Functionalist contend that the customary perspective on family in Britain was that of the Nuclear family, this was one where hitched ladies were viewed as housewives, they played out the local errands and thought about their youngsters. Their spouses were viewed as normally confident the predominant male, the provider and perform financially steady undertakings. Edmund Lech (1967) named this perspective on the family as The Cereal Pack Norm, and reprimanded â€Å"the lawdry secrets† of the family unit. This perspective on sexual orientation jobs and the family is a discussion shared by numerous scholars. Youthful and Willmott (1973) acknowledged the perspective on the family unit and declared the appearance of the balanced family. They proposed that there was a development towards balance, which means joint matrimonial jobs, a feeling of harmony between the obligations of sexual orientation assignments inside the family. Marital jobs can be together completed, isolated or incorporated. Ann Oakley (1974) and different women's activists differ that matrimonial jobs were joint yet were socially developed, after the mechanical upset new laws were brought out confining ladies and children’s working hours. Ladies had to become housewives and moms, men were viewed as the macho male. Some women's activist speculations propose that society is male centric, an arrangement of male force and control. Women's activists contend ladies are pushed to the edges of a mechanical economy by male ruled establishments, proposing guys are thusly safeguarded force and authority with in sexual orientation jobs and the family. The Media made numerous references to the New Man; this was a term applied to those men who have supposedly moved away from the generalization picture of the macho male, they permitted their temperaments to be progressively expressive, and would likewise share household and youngster care errands. Is this New Man a reality or a legend? Sex jobs inside the family our progressively changing yet to what degree are male and female jobs populist? Youthful and Willmott (1973) distributed research discoveries, which recommended that the balanced family was currently the normal family structure in Britain. 72% of men were helping in the house and investing the proportionate measure of energy in home-related errands. It was discovered that sexual orientation jobs existed with more equity than previously. Choices about family life were shared moving towards increasingly coordinated marital jobs. Ann Oakley (1974) reprimanded this as she found that full time housewives went through 77 hours every week on housework, she excused the mindful sharing job of the new man. Ann Oakley contested Young and Willmott’s techniques asserting they were one-sided, as the main inquiry they posed might have been, do you help in any event once every week with any family unit undertakings like washing dishes, making beds, pressing or cleaning. The appropriate response given could exaggerate the measure of residential work that was really being done. A man pressing a shirt once seven days was not really a major commitment to the sharing of sex jobs. Oakley’s inquire about indicated a reasonable division in labor as respects to housework, she talked with forty ladies with youngsters younger than five from various social class foundations, her examination demonstrated an unmistakable division in labor with ladies investing more energy n housework 77 hours and 30 % of men added to childcare errands. Guys were helping more with the youngsters, sex personalities were beginning to advance. There is proof that there is a steady move towards incorporated jobs and uniformity Devine (1992) completed a little investigation of vehicle laborers it indicated that men’s commitment to household work expanded when their spouses returned paid business. It is recommended this lone came auxiliary over all ladies despite everything stayed liable for childcare and housework. Around the same time Gershuny’s explore uncovered a continuous increment of local work assignments done by men when the spouse was is in all day business ,therefore a progressive move to balance. The changing jobs points of view expect a slow sharing of sexual orientation jobs inside the family. As of late there has been a more extensive acknowledgment of these compatible sexual orientation jobs. Seven out of ten ladies with youngsters younger than five are currently in business. The Equal Opportunities Commission show a Surprising 36% of couple’s state that the man is the principle carer. Paid work would appear to engage ladies inside the family. Anyway in later years The N. I. Social Attitudes overview (1994) and The N. I. Life and Times Survey (1998) show that in any event, when ladies were in paid business, oneself announced hours on family unit and the arrangement of childcare errands were extraordinarily separated, with ladies completing 17. 15.hours of housework contrasted with men’s commitment with just 5. 92 hours. DETI (2003) additionally show imbalances with 69% of ladies without youngsters working outside the home, these figures drop to half when ladies have at least three kids, recommending that ladies still essentially consider childcare to be their duty. O’Brien and Shernit (2002) in their investigation for Equal Opportunities Commission in Britain recommend that fathers are more averse to profit of family agreeable working strategies that are set up. The Family Policy Studies focus demonstrated reports of new manism were incredibly misrepresented with 90% of ladies despite everything working low maintenance. This additionally shows an unevenness, proposing that ladies worry about the double concern of work. Research focuses towards ladies despite everything enduring sexual orientation disparities inside the family. There is proof that even while working ladies despite everything have the weight of passionate and household work. In (1993) Duncombe and Marsden examine uncovered sex disparities in force and residential obligations. They add to their finding that ladies accept they make the essential ‘emotional investment’ in the family and marriage. A large number of their female respondents grumbled that their spouses were not interested in their job in holding the relationship together. As it were ladies are much of the time answerable for the ‘triple shift’ importance outside work, housework and all passionate work. Along these lines ladies endured what they named as passionate forlornness it was recommended men would prefer to acquire a pay as expected to give enthusiastic satisfaction. They were reluctant to talk about or show their sentiments of adoration for their accomplice. Men didn't perceive that feeling work was expected to keep a relationship together. Women’s bigger contribution in feeling work can be a significant component of sexual orientation imbalances in couple connections. Edgell’s concentrate in (1980) indicated an awkwardness when it came to control increasingly significant choices were bound to be taken by men. It was proposed that when it boiled down to significant choices like purchasing a house, vehicle or other budgetary choices the men had the force and authority they were the chain of command the prevailing male. Ladies may have had choices on inconsequential things, for example, what shading she was going to paint the house or the amount she would spend on the children’s dress or the shopping. At the point when it came to significant choices ladies sees were auxiliary, gendered jobs were isolated, men had the predominant job and the choices of intensity. Aggressive behavior at home is another key component to matrimonial jobs; numerous extreme women's activists state that male controlled society despite everything exists inside wedded and living together couples. The family insights show that abusive behavior at home records for a fourth of a percent of all attacks in the UK. Additionally one fourth of all ladies on the planet experience this. Debash and Debash contended that spouse beating was an expansion of the husbands command over his better half. These rates recommend that men utilized brutality to pick up power over their accomplices. This might be distorted as not all attacks are accounted for and men additionally can be casualties of aggressive behavior at home. In the 1970’s the women's activist development presented equity issues. The Sex Discrimination Act (1975) and the Equal Pay Act (1970) were presented these demonstrations were an item and a reason for additional ladies working. These demonstrations prompted a few ladies to dismiss the customary housewife job and urged them to have less youngsters and put a lifelong first. Women’s jobs began to have a greater amount of an equivalent status to that of her male accomplice. Women's activists like Ann Oakley condemned Young and Willmott’s perspective on the even family and joint marital jobs she thought they were one-sided and utilized inaccurate technique. In spite of the fact that Oakley’s own exploration found a steady partaking in childcare undertakings, ladies were still predominately answerable for housework. Women's activists contend men appear to have less feeling work, more force and authority therefore they advantage more from family life. Duncombe and Marsden and Edgell’s inquire about back this hypothesis up. Functionalists like Young and Wilmott (1973) and the Media propose that sex jobs are getting progressively coordinated. Devine and Gershuny’s inquire about in (1992) recommend there is some proof to a little move towards populist connections, with men contributing more when their spouses were utilized. Proof from the Equal Opportunities Commission show a stunning 36% of guys are currently the principle carer, this sharing of youngster care presents us with proof to a degree the new man exists. Sex jobs are changing with more ladies joining the work power and male perspectives towards are sharing of household work are step by step getting libertarian. Sociologists and scholars in the 21st century contend that view of sex jobs inside family and assorted variety have changed diversely and inside social orders, they recommend new families and sex jobs are beginning to rise.

The eNotes Blog Make That a Royale with Cheese Top Ten CrazyCookbooks

Make That a Royale with Cheese Top Ten CrazyCookbooks You may be astounded to discover that one section of the book showcase, cookbooks, isn't just apparently  immune from the abatement in deals however prospers. As the economy keeps on battling, numerous individuals are eating an ever increasing number of suppers at home. A decent number are additionally coming back to hand crafted interests like canning, developing herbs, making cheddar, fermenting lager and that's just the beginning.  Eager to guarantee some portion of that discretionary cashflow, distributers have green-lit various flawed culinary tomes. 1  Pulp Kitchen:  Recipes for the Good, the Bad, and the Hungryâ by Feargus OSullivan Creamed minds on toast, maybe? Shouldn't something be said about this film would make you need to eatanything? Better believe it, no doubt the burger joint scene however that appears to be a somewhat short menu for a whole cookbook. 2.   The Testicle Cookbook: Cooking with Ballsâ by Ljudomir R. Erovic Mmmmmmmmmmmmmmmm. balls! (I would prefer even not to recognize what some portion of this is multi-media) 3. The Bewitched Cookbook: Magic in the Kitchenâ by Kasey Rogers and Mark Wood Feeling torn between customary female good examples and the longing to attest your autonomy? Then The Bewitchedâ cookbook is for you! I am speculating there are a lot of jello molds and dishes to be affectionately preparedor in any event hurled in the enchantment of the microwave. Make your own condemned sandwich. 4. The Romance of Foodâ by Barbara Cartland Tired of expounding on tearing bodices and sheathing (heh) blades, productive sentiment creator Barbara Cartland turned her abilities to telling us simply the best way to get a shimmering half-stripped Scotsman to eat caviar off your hurling chest. I presume. 5.  Wookies Cookies and Other Galactic Recipesâ by Robin Davis Am I the one in particular who thinks those treats look like cow patties? I surmise that addresses an inquiry concerning Wookie body works in any case. 6.  The Un-blocked up Gourmetâ by Danielle Svetcovâ Know a lot of companions you think are loaded with *^%? Time to have a supper get-together! This helps me to remember the great Colon Blow and You drama with Phil Hartman: nbc.com/saturday-night-live/video/colon-blow/n9822/ 7.  The Star-Trek Cookbookâ by Ethan Phillips and William J. Birnes Gracious I am heartbroken. The official Star-Trek cookbook. Also, I figured it is restricted to a pack of Cheetos and Hot-Pockets. 8.  Mosh Potatoes: Recipes, Anecdote, and Mayhem from the Heavy Weights of Heavy Metalâ by Steve Seabury I am going to speculate here and state that the stories out number the plans. 9.  Eat a Bug Cookbook: Real plans utilizing scarabs, bugs and other genuinely irregular ingredientsâ by David George Gordon 10. The Roadkill Cookbookâ by B.R.. Buck Peterson The Original! Acknowledge no replacements! Blurgh. I dont know precisely what luxuries anticipate in this one, yet in one of the substitutes, The Roadkill Cookbookâ by Arthur Bates, you can get yourself ready a pleasant cluster of, I am completely serious, Hedgehog Spaghetti Carbonara

Sublimation in Behavioral Psychology

Sublimation in Behavioral Psychology Basics Print Sublimation in Behavioral Psychology By Kendra Cherry facebook twitter Kendra Cherry, MS, is an author, educational consultant, and speaker focused on helping students learn about psychology. Learn about our editorial policy Kendra Cherry Updated on January 15, 2020 Bettman / Getty Images More in Psychology Basics Psychotherapy Student Resources History and Biographies Theories Phobias Emotions Sleep and Dreaming We all experience unwanted impulses or urges from time to time. How we deal with those feelings, however, can mean the difference between acceptable or unacceptable behaviors. Acting on these urges in the wrong way can be inappropriate, so finding ways to deal with such desires is critical. One way that people deal with such urges through a process that is known in psychology as sublimation. Through sublimation, people are able to transform unwanted impulses into something that is less harmful and often even helpful. How Does Sublimation Work? Consider what might happen if you find yourself overcome with anger. Having an emotional blow-up is one way of dealing with such feelings. But such expressions of emotion can be harmful in more ways than one. You might find yourself with damaged relationships and a reputation as a hothead. Rather than fly off in a fit of rage, what if you channeled those angry emotions into some type of physical activity, such as cleaning your house? You might spend a few hours angrily scrubbing down your kitchen and bathrooms. Once your feelings of frustration eventually subside, you are left with a positive resultâ€"a sparkling clean house. This is one example of how sublimation can transform negative impulses into behaviors that are less damaging and even productive. Sublimation in Psychoanalysis The concept of sublimation plays an important role in Sigmund Freuds psychoanalytic theory. Sublimation is a type of defense mechanism, an unconscious psychological defense that reduces the anxiety that might result from unacceptable urges or harmful stimuli.?? According to Freuds psychoanalytic theory, there are three components of personality. The id is the first to form and serves as the source of the libido or the energy that drives behavior. The id is primitive and basic, composed of all the urges and desires that are often socially unacceptable if we simply acted upon them whenever we pleased. The ego emerges later during childhood and is the part of the personality that reigns in the id and makes it conform to the demands of reality. Rather than simply acting out on urges, the ego forces us to deal with these desires in ways that are more realistic. Finally, the superego is the component of personality that is made up of all the morals, rules, standards, and values that we have internalized from our parents and culture. This part of personality strives to make us behave in ways that are moral. The ego must then mediate between the primal urges of the id, the moralistic standards of the superego, and the realistic demands of reality. Sublimation is one of these ways that the ego reduces the anxiety that can be created by unacceptable urges or feelings. Sublimation works by channeling negative and unacceptable impulses into behaviors that are positive and socially acceptable. Freud considered sublimation a sign of maturity that allows people to behave in civilized and acceptable ways. This process can lead people to pursue activities that are better for their health or engage in behaviors that are positive, productive, and creative.?? Freuds idea of sublimation originated while he was reading the story of a man who tortured animals as a child and later went on to become a surgeon. Freud believed that the same energy that once drove the childs sadism was eventually sublimated into positive and socially acceptable actions that benefited others. Examples of Sublimation Participation in sports and athletic competition can sometimes be examples of sublimation in action. Rather than acting on unacceptable urges to fight with others, people may play competitive sports in order to dominate and win. This can also extend to exercise activity as well. Imagine that you get in an argument with your next-door neighbor. Your feelings of anger might create an urge to physically strike out at the neighbor. Because such action is inappropriate, you might deal with your feelings of frustration by going for a jog. Through sublimation, you are able to turn your unwanted impulses into an action that dissipates your anger and benefits your own physical health.?? Some other examples of sublimation in the real world:  You feel an urge to be unfaithful to your partner. Rather than act on these unacceptable urges, you channel your feelings into doing projects around the yard.You become distraught at the end of a relationship. In order to deal with these negative emotions, you begin writing poetry. You are able to transfer your heartbreak and emotional upset into a creative activity.You are reprimanded by your manager at work. You feel fearful that you might lose your job, but you decide to walk home from work in order to think and release your frustrations. This activity not only gives you time to cool off and reflect; it also benefits your physical health.You have an almost obsessive need to have control over even the smallest details in your life. You sublimate this energy into becoming a successful business owner and leader. Research on Sublimation In a 2013 study published in the Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, researchers looked at whether Protestants were more likely to sublimate taboo feelings into creative endeavors. They found that individuals who experienced sexual problems related to anxieties over taboo desires were more likely to also have greater creative accomplishments than those who reported no sexual problems or those with sexual problems unrelated to taboo feelings. The researchers suggest that their studies represent possibly the first experimental evidence for sublimation and suggest a cultural psychological approach to defense mechanisms.?? How Can Sublimation Influence Your Life So what role might the process of sublimation have in your life? As Freud suggested, sublimation is usually considered a healthy and mature way of dealing with urges that may be undesirable or unacceptable. Rather than act out in ways that may cause us or others harm, sublimation allows us to channel that energy into things that are beneficial. This defense mechanism can actually end up having a positive effect on your health and wellness. It is important to remember that sublimation is not always obvious because it operates at a subconscious level. While we sometimes might be able to see how our negative feelings can drive us to act in certain ways, we are often very much unaware of such things. We may be even less aware of the underlying defense mechanisms that are at work. There also may not be a direct correlation between the cause of the negative emotion and the behavior that results from sublimation. While are earlier examples showed anger being sublimated into physical action, such feelings could result in a variety of behaviors. Frustration and anger might lead to a person engaging in a relaxing hobby such as fishing or painting, for example.?? A Word From Verywell Sublimation can be a powerful influence on behavior, although one of which we are largely unaware. Even though this defense mechanism may operate on a subconscious level, you can take inspiration from it by intentionally finding ways to substitute more healthy and productive behaviors for harmful ones.

Sam Walton and Wal-Mart Essay - 2021 Words

Sam Walton and Wal-Mart Sam Walton was born on March 29, 1918 to Thomas Gibson and Nancy Lee Walton near Kingfisher, Oklahoma. In Oklahoma, they owned and lived on a farm until 1923. The Waltons then decided that the farm was not profitable enough to raise a family on. So, Sam and James (Sams younger brother born in 1921) dad decided he would go back to being a Farm Loan Appraiser. Once this job started the Walton family moved out of Oklahoma and moved from town to town in Missouri. This would traumatize most children but for the Walton boys though it was no big deal. This could be seen when Sam was in 8th grade at Shelbina he became the youngest boy in the states history to become an Eagle Scout and this was only a start of his†¦show more content†¦While accomplishing all this he was also in the National Honor Society. When Sam Walton graduated in 1940 he was voted the permanent President of his class. Three days after graduation he entered the retail world working at JcPenneys in Des Moines, Iowa as a management trainee earning a salary of $75.00 a month. As Sam grew up and anyone could see how determined he was to succeed and as time passed he went from being a poor town boy to the richest man in the world. He gained experience at Penneys but in early 1942 Walton resigned to wait to be inducted into the military services for World War II. While waiting, Sam took a job in a Du Pont munitions plant near Tulsa, Oklahoma. While working and living near Tulsa, Sam met his future wife Helen Robson. She lived in a little town called Claremore where she attended Claremore High School and graduated valedictorian of her class and went on to attend college at the University of Oklahoma at Norman and graduated with a degree in business. They met in April of 1942 and were married on February 14, 1943. In 1944 they had their first son, Samuel Robson (Rob), John Thomas was born in 1946, James Carr (Jim), born in 1948, and Alice born in 1949. Her father was L.S. Robson, a prosperous banker and rancher who would go on to help Sam start his first store . Soon after they were married, Sam went to serve in the US Army intelligence corps in the continental UnitedShow MoreRelatedEnthusiastic and Ruthless Sam Walton: Founder of Wal-Mart587 Words   |  2 PagesSam Walton was born on March 29, 1918 in Kingfisher, Oklahoma. Shortly after he was born his family uprooted and moved to Missouri. Sam grew up in Missouri playing sports in high school and was a good student. He later attended the University of Missouri where he graduated with a degree in economics. After serving in World War 2, he opened his first business, a Ben Franklin franchise in Newport, Arkansas. Over a 20 year period he came to own 15 Ben Franklin stores with the help of his brother. WaltonRead MoreWal Marts Cost Of Convenience1212 Words   |  5 PagesWhen one considers Wal-Mart, their initial thoughts are usually not very distasteful, and convenience is quick to come to mind. Convenience should be considered a four-letter word for most corporations since the cost of co nvenience is so much that it does not take a world-class poker player to know the odds of coming out ahead are zilch. In order to make convenience a profitable business, Wal-Mart has to hide the shortcuts behind the faà §ade of convenience. Once we get passed the faced that allowsRead More The Influence of Sam Walton on the Retail Industry 1202 Words   |  5 PagesSam Walton was a genius mogul and was the founder of Wal-Mart. His retail visionary skills took a small-town variety store in Alabama, and transformed it into the largest retail company in the world. Even after his death, 20 years ago, he influence is still witness today in the retail industry. Be an Innovator Sam Walton’s main philosophy was to keep cost low, which kept prices low. It is a simple premise but is very problematical in practical use. This brings me to the first lesson thatRead MoreWal Mart Stores, Inc. Essay725 Words   |  3 PagesCompany Wal-Mart Stores, Inc. also referred to as Walmart is the company that I am going to research for my proposal. The company website is www.walmart.com and the corporate website is www.corporate.walmart.com. Wal-Mart Stores Inc., (2016) stated that Sam Walton opened the first Walmart Discount City in 1962 in Rogers, Arkansas. Before Wal-Mart Discount City; Sam and James Walton, brothers opened up a variety store franchise in 1945 (Wal-Mart Stores Inc., 2015) Sam Walton had retail experienceRead MoreEssay about Wal-Mart1542 Words   |  7 PagesThe founder of the Wal-Mart chain, Sam Walton was born in March 1918 in the town of Kingfisher, Oklahoma. Graduating from the University of Missouri, Sam enlisted in the Army for the World War II effort. Upon his return, Sam worked for a while at the J.C. Penney group of stores. He began to realize that opportunities existed in the large scale discount retailing business (nickel and dime stores). The idea and business philosophy of Wal-Mart borrowed from the nickel and dime stores of earlier timesRead MoreMgt/330 Wal-Mart Organizational Paper1102 Words   |  5 PagesWal-Mart Organizing Paper Ian Ericson MGT/330 February 19, 2013 David Ball Wal-Mart Organizing Paper Business economy today has seen vast amounts of businesses fail. However, Wal-Mart Corporation is standing and increases their revenue yearly. In 2009 alone, Wal-Mart generated approximately $404 billion dollars in revenue. That type of success only proves that the organization has everything in order to keep on the track of success. Within this paper, an evaluation of the organizingRead MoreWal-Mart Store Company Overview Term Paper1294 Words   |  6 PagesWal-Mart Stores, Inc. Executive Summary Wal-Mart has grown to be the world’s largest retail and grocery store with sales soaring to $419 billion in fiscal year 2011. Wal-Mart employs over 2 million associates worldwide in 9,600 retail units and operates in 28 countries. Wal-Mart has enjoyed its success since 1962 when the first store opened in 1962 in Rogers, Arkansas. Wal-Mart was founded by Sam Walton who envisioned a retail store that could â€Å"save people money to help them live betterRead MoreEssay on The Pros and Cons of Wal-Mart1656 Words   |  7 Pagesknows, much like the post office or even city hall. Wal-Mart. That is where the oddity lies, in the fact that a retail store is just as well known as staples for towns across the nation; not to mention the fact that Wal-Mart isn’t just in the United States, but around the world. Founder of the billion dollar industry, Sam Walton, did expect success from his endeavor, but no one could have foreseen just how influential the retail store would be. Wal-Mart is an astonishingly successful business with humbleRead MoreWal Marts Impact On The World1318 Words   |  6 PagesIn 1945, Sam Walton opened his first variety store and in 1962, he opened his first Wal-Mart Discount City in Rogers, Arkansas. Now, Wal-Mart is expected to exceed â€Å"$200 billion a year in sales by 2002 (with current figures of) more than 100 million shoppers a week†¦(and as of 1999) it became the first (private-sector) company in the world to have more than one million employees.† Why? One reason is that Wal-Mart has continued â€Å"to lead the way in adopting cutting-edge technology to track how peopleRead MoreWalmart Case Analysis1680 Words   |  7 Pages Analysis of the issues: Personnel In order to understand Wal-Mart’s history and view towards its associates, one has to look at its roots and the policies that were instituted by Sam Walton in their early years. Sam Walton started Wal-Mart at the age of 44 and approached the management of the company like a store manager would. Sam Walton micro-managed his stores and placed profit and growth above everything. In the 1960’s American South mechanization

International Trade A New Concept - 2257 Words

International trade is focused on the exchange of goods, services and capital across national borders. According to Ball et al. (2012) international trade brings many benefits to the consumer, such as larger variety of products and services, on the other hand also benefits the country’s economy such as creation of jobs, innovation or reduction of poverty. World Trade Organisation (2013:online) proposes that merchandise exports of WTO members totalled US $17.3 trillion in 2012 and export of commercial services totalled US $4.25 trillion in 2012 and suggests that size of the international trade continues to increase. The top five world’s merchandise exporters are Germany, United States, China, Japan and France, in addition world’s top five service exporters are United States, United Kingdom, Germany, Japan and France (Wild et al., 2010). The concept of trade and international trade is not a new concept, it occurred many thousands of years ago (Schmitz and Schmitz, 2014). Figures for international trade- why is it important Make sure you understand the main theories of trade -- neoclassical comparative advantage and new trade theory (and whilst Porter s Diamond Model isn t formally a theory of trade, there are a number of ways in which it overlaps with theories of trade, particularly new trade theory). The reading material, particularly the textbook book chapters I have included on the list, discuss these various theories and the implications for free or managedShow MoreRelatedEssay on International Trade Simulation987 Words   |  4 Pagessummarize the International Trade Simulation, explain the basic concept of International Trade, emphasize the four key points from the reading assignments in the simulation, and apply these concepts to my workplace. Simulation Summary In the International Trade simulation, you are the Trade Representative of a small country called Rodamia. You are introduced to international trade--the theory of comparative advantage and the impact of tariffs, quotas, and dumping on international trade (Applying InternationalRead MoreEssay on International Trade Concepts Simulation827 Words   |  4 PagesInternational Trade Concepts Simulation Abstract The following paper will present information found in a simulation based on international trade concepts. Key points found from the reading will be noted and concepts discussed will be shown integrated in the workplace. International Trade Concepts Simulation International trade has become a very important means of survival for global economies in this day and age. As countries continue to grow and resources become smaller, trade with otherRead MoreDavid Ricardos The Principle Of Political Economy And Taxation1519 Words   |  7 Pagesmodern economics was David Ricardo who developed the concept of the comparative advantage of trade. This concept is a part of the classical theory of trade and was published in 1817 in David Ricardo’s book entitled the Principles of Political Economy and Taxation (Appleyard Field, 2014, p. 30). This paper will address the effectiveness of this concept as it has been applied to real-world international trade after the General Agreement in Trade and Tariffs (GATT) was signed in 1947. How the levelRead MoreDifferent Theories Concepts Of International Trade Theories1697 Words   |  7 Pagesdifferences between different theory concepts of international trade theories. The author will analysis and se riously assess their believe concepts and believe. The author of this assignment agrees with the economist that international trade is the interdependence of nations in terms of trade. International trade theories are basically different theories, with their concept of trade how they explain international trade. The concept of majority of economist believes that, trade is about exchanging goods andRead MorePolitical Factors That Affect International Business1020 Words   |  5 Pagesfactors that affect international business include† (Justin Ervin. Zachary Smith A.2008). One significant political environmental factor that influences international business operation is trade agreements. Countries frequently enter into trade treaties to further facilitate trade between themselves. Case in point, a European Union consisting of countries like France, Germany and Italy where the organizations of these member states can with few legal requirements, these international business haveRead MoreChallenges Faced By International Businesses Essay1506 Words   |  7 PagesIn this modern globalized world, there have been many challenges for International Businesses to seek for opportunity and chance to expand their business to a wider marketplace. There are many ways for international businesses to seek those opportunities, such as through exporting goods and services, starting a joint venture with a company, opening a branch for distributing goods, and giving license to produce goods. From these ways to seek opportunities, there are basically three major motives, Read More Challenging Comparative Advantage Essay1410 Words   |  6 Pagesbenefits of mutual trade (Carbaugh, 2008). Many underlying assumptions of comparative advantage depend on states of economic equilibrium and an absence of economy of scale. In reality, economies are dynamic and subject to innovation and interference; which has led to revised assumptions of return and competition (Krugman, 1987). These factors have created questions of free trade and governmental participation in an economy by the development of strategic trade policies. These new concepts do not replaceRead MoreThe International Trade Concepts1357 Words   |  6 PagesThe International Trade Concepts The International Trade Concepts simulation helps one to learn the advantages and limitations of international trade. One can also take what is learned from the simulation and relate it to the U.S. economy and the effects international trade has on it. Learning about how fiscal and monetary policies affect the exchange rate is important as well. Not only can one apply what was learned in the simulation to the U.S. economy but they can also apply it to their workplaceRead More International Trade Essay865 Words   |  4 Pages International Trade What is International Trade?   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  International trade is defined as trade between two or more partners from different countries in the exchange of goods and services. In order to understand International trade, we need to first know and understand what trade is, which is the buying and selling of products between different countries. International Trade simply is globalization of the world and enables countries to obtain products and services from other countries effortlesslyRead MoreGlobalization: Its Effects Key Drivers and Supporting Theories695 Words   |  3 Pagesinterdependence of countries world-wide through the increasing volume and variety of cross-border transactions in goods and services and of international capital flows, and also through the more rapid and widespread diffusion of technology. There exists a number of traditional international trade theories that in one way or the other support the globalization concept. One of these theories is mercantilism which is largely based on the view that nations should export more (while discouraging imports)

Sachin Tendulkar Free Essays

Sachin Ramesh Tendulkar  (English pronunciation:  /s t n t? n? du? lk? r/  (  listen); born 24 April 1973)[1]  is an  Indian cricketer  widely acknowledged as the greatestbatsman  in  One Day Internationals[2]  and second only to  Don Bradman  in the all time greatest list in  Test cricket. [3]  In 2002,  The Wisden  ranked him the second greatest Test batsman of all time, behind  Don Bradman, and the second greatest one-day-international (ODI) batsman of all time, behind  Viv Richards. [4]  Tendulkar was a part of the  2011 Cricket World Cup  winning  Indian team  in the later part of his career, his first such win in six World Cup appearances for India. We will write a custom essay sample on Sachin Tendulkar or any similar topic only for you Order Now 5]  He was also the recipient of â€Å"Player of the Tournament† award of the  2003 Cricket World Cup  held in South Africa. Tendulkar won the 2010  Sir Garfield Sobers Trophy  for cricketer of the year at the ICC awards. [6]  He has been recommended for the receipt of the  Bharat Ratna  award, in fact it has been speculated that the criteria for the award of the  Bharat Ratna  was changed to allow him receive the award. [7][8]  He is also a member of  Rajya Sabha  ofParliament of India. [9]  Tendulkar passed 30,000 runs in international cricket on 20 November 2009. On 5 December 2012, Tendulkar became first batsman in history to cross the 34,000 run aggregate in all formats of the game put together. [10][11][12]  At 36 years and 306 days, he became the first ever player to score a double-century in the history of ODIs. Two years later he became the first player to score 100 international centuries. As of December 2012, Tendulkar has played 657 matches in international cricket. [13] Tendulkar has been honoured with the  Padma Vibhushan  award, India’s second highest civilian award, and the  Rajiv Gandhi Khel Ratna  award, India’s highest sporting honour. He was also the first sportsperson and the first one without  aviationbackground to be awarded the honorary rank of  Group Captain  by the  Indian Air Force. Tendulkar has received honorary doctorates from  University of Mysore  andRajiv Gandhi University of Health Sciences. [14][15]  Sachin holds the 19th rank in  ICC Player Rankings  for Test batsmen as of 17 March 2013. [16]  On 1 August 2012, Sachin Tendulkar was nominated for the ICC People’s Choice award for the third time. [17]  In 2012, he was nominated to  Rajya Sabha, the upper house of theParliament of India. Sachin Tendulkar was named as an Honorary  Member of the Order of Australia  in 2012. [18]  On 23 December 2012, Tendulkar announced his retirement from ODIs. [19][20][21][22]  Tendulkar has already stated that he will not be playing  T20 Internationals  [23] Contents  Ã‚  [hide]   * 1  Early years and personal life * 1. 1  Beliefs * 2  Early domestic career * 3  International career * 3. 1  Early career * 3. 2  Rise through the ranks * 3. 3  Captaincy * 3. 4  Injuries and apparent decline * 3. 5  Return to old form and consistency * 3.   2007/08 tour of Australia * 3. 7  Home series against South Africa * 3. 8  Sri Lanka Series * 3. 9  Return to form and breaking the record * 3. 10  ODI and Test Series against England * 3. 11  2009–2010 * 3. 12  2011 World Cup and after * 3. 12. 1  100th international century * 3. 12. 2  Return To Ranji Trophy and retirement from ODIs * 4  Indian Premier League and Champions League * 5   Style of play * 6  Controversies * 6. 1  Mike Denness incident * 6. 2  Ferrari import tax * 7  Fan following * 8  Business interests * 8.   Commercial endorsements * 9  Political career * 10  Career achievements * 10. 1  Individual honours and appreciations * 10. 1. 1  National honours * 10. 1. 2  Other honours * 11  Philanthropy * 12  Biographies * 13  See also * 14  Further reading * 15  Notes * 16  References * 17  External links| ————————————————- Early years and personal life Tendulkar was born on 24 April 1973 into a  Rajapur Saraswat Brahmin  family in Bombay (now  Mumbai). [24][25][26]  His father Ramesh Tendulkar was a reputed  Marathi  novelist and his mother Rajni worked in the insurance industry. 27]  Ramesh named Tendulkar after his favourite music director,  Sachin Dev Burman. Tendulkar has three elder sibli ngs: two half-brothers Nitin and Ajit, and a half-sister Savita. They were Ramesh’s children from his first marriage. [28]  He spent his formative years in the  Sahitya Sahawas Cooperative Housing Society,  Bandra (East), Bombay. As a young boy, Tendulkar was considered a bully, and often picked up fights with new children in his school. [29]  He also showed an interest in  tennis, idolising  John McEnroe. [30]  To help curb his mischievous and bullying tendencies, Ajit introduced him to cricket in 1984. He introduced the young Sachin to  Ramakant Achrekar, a famous cricket coach of Bombay and a club cricketer of repute, at  Shivaji Park,  Dadar, Bombay. Achrekar was impressed with Tendulkar’s talent and advised him to shift his schooling to Sharadashram Vidyamandir (English) High School,[1]  a school at Dadar which had a dominant cricket team and had produced many notable cricketers. [31]  Prior to this, Tendulkar had attended the Indian Education Society’s New English School in Bandra (East). [31]  He was also coached under the guidance of Achrekar at Shivaji Park in the mornings and evenings. 32]  Tendulkar would practice for hours on end in the nets. If he became exhausted, Achrekar would put a one-rupee  coin on the top of the  stumps, and the bowler who dismissed Tendulkar would get the coin. If Tendulkar passed the whole session without getting dismissed, the coach would give him the coin. Tendulkar now considers the 13 coins he won then as some of his most prized possessions. [33]  He moved in with his aunt and uncle, who lived near Shivaji Park, during this period, due to his hectic schedule. [31] Sachin Tendulkar and his wife Anjali Meanwhile at school, he developed a reputation as a child prodigy. He had become a common conversation point in Mumbai cricketing circles, where there were suggestions already that he would become one of the greats. Besides school cricket, he also played club cricket, initially representing John Bright Cricket Club in Bombay’s premier club cricket tournament, the Kanga League,[31]  and later went on to play for the  Cricket Club of India. [34]In 1987, at the age of 14, he attended the  MRF Pace Foundation  in Madras (now  Chennai) to train as a  fast bowler, but Australian fast bowler  Dennis Lillee, who took a world record 355 Test wickets, was unimpressed, suggesting that Tendulkar focus on his batting instead. 35]A couple of months later, former Indian batsman  Sunil Gavaskar  gave him a pair of his own ultra light pads. â€Å"It was the greatest source of encouragement for me,† Tendulkar said nearly 20 years later after surpassing Gavaskar’s world record of 34 Test centuries. [36]  His season in 1988 was extraordinary, with Tendulkar scoring a century in every innings he played. He was involved in an unbroken 664-runpartnership  in a Lord Harris Shield inter-school game against Anjuman-E-Islam High School in 1988 with his friend and team-mateVinod Kambli, who would also go on to represent India. The destructive pair reduced one bowler to tears and made the rest of the opposition unwilling to continue the game. Tendulkar scored 326 (not out) in this innings and scored over a thousand runs in the tournament. [37]  This was a record partnership in any form of cricket until 2006, when it was broken by two under-13 batsmen in a match held at  Hyderabad  in India. On 24 May 1995,[38]  at the age of 22, Tendulkar married Anjali, a  paediatrician  and daughter of  Gujarati  industrialist Anand Mehta and British social worker Annabel Mehta. Anjali is six years his senior. [39]  They have two children, Sara (born 12 October 1997) and Arjun (born 24 September 1999). Arjun, a left handed batsman, has recently been included in under-14 probables list of Mumbai Cricket Association for off-season training camp. In January 2013 he was selected in mumbai under-14 team for the west zone league  [40] Beliefs Tendulkar is known to be a religious person,[41]  and an ardent devotee of  Sathya Sai Baba  of Puttaparthi. [42][43][44]  He has visited Puttaparthi on several occasions to seek Baba’s blessings. 42][45]  In 1997, Tendulkar captained the Indian National side, playing against a World Eleven team, in the Unity Cup which was held at the hill view stadium in Puttaparthi, in Baba’s presence. [46][47]  After Sai Baba’s death, Tendulkar broke into tears when he saw the body of Baba in Puttaparthi, and cancelled his birthday celebrations. [48][49][50]  The cricketer is also known to celebrate G anesh Chaturthi at home and frequently visits temples during night when it is calm and quiet. [41][51]  The cricketer has also offered his prayers at several other  Hindu  temples across the country. 52][53] ————————————————- Early domestic career On 14 November 1987, Tendulkar was selected to represent  Bombay  in the  Ranji Trophy, India’s premier domestic  first-class crickettournament, for the 1987–88 season. However, he was not selected for the final eleven in any of the matches. [31]  A year later, on 11 December 1988, aged just 15 years and 232 days, Tendulkar made his debut for Bombay against  Gujarat  at home and scored 100 not out in that match, making him the youngest Indian to score a century on first-class debut. He was handpicked to play for the team by the then Mumbai captain  Dilip Vengsarkar  after watching him easily negotiating India’s best fast bowler at the time,  Kapil Dev, in theWankhede Stadium  nets,[1]  where the  Indian team  had come to play against the touring  New Zealand team. He followed this by scoring a century in his first Deodhar and Duleep Trophies, which are also Indian domestic tournaments. [54] Tendulkar finished the 1988–89 season as Bombay’s highest run-scorer. [note 1][55]  He also made an unbeaten century in the  Irani Trophy  match against  Delhi  at the start of the 1989–90 season, playing for the Rest of India. 56] In 1992, at the age of 19, Tendulkar became the first overseas-born player to represent  Yorkshire, which prior to Tendulkar joining the team, never selected players even from other English counties. [1][note 2]  Selected for Yorkshire as a replacement for the injuredAustralian  fast bowle r  Craig McDermott, Tendulkar played 16 first-class matches for the county and scored 1070 runs at an average of 46. 52. [57] His first double century was for Mumbai while playing against the visiting Australian team at the  Brabourne Stadium  in 1998. [1]  He is the only player to score a century in all three of his domestic first-class debuts. 58] ————————————————- International career Early career Raj Singh Dungarpur  is credited for the selection of Tendulkar for the Indian tour of  Pakistan  in late 1989,[59]  and that also after just one first class season. [60]  The Indian selection committee had shown interest in selecting Tendulkar for the tour of the  West Indies  held earlier that year, but eventually did not select him, as they did not want him to be exposed to the dominant fast bowlers of the West Indies so early in his career. Tendulkar mad How to cite Sachin Tendulkar, Papers

The Armed Forces of the Philippines in the Politics of Today Essay Example

The Armed Forces of the Philippines in the Politics of Today Essay The Armed Forces of the Philippines in the Politics of Today â€Å"Now the general is the bulwark of the State; if the bulwark is complete at all points; the State will be strong; if the bulwark is defective, the State will be weak† Sun Tzu (Giles, 1910). I. Introduction The year 1986 opened the door to a new era of military interventions in Philippine politics. The EDSA People Power Revolt showcased a total makeover in the Armed Forces of the Philippines’ (AFP) image, evolving from an armed forces subservient to a 20-year dictatorship (Selochan, 1989:1) to an armed forces dubbed as the â€Å"protector of the Filipino people[i]† (De Leon, 2005: 47-49). However, barely four months after installing President Corazon C. Aquino in office, various elements in the military – Marcos loyalists, Guardians, and the RAM-SFP-YOU staged four successive failed coup attempts and two aborted coup plots from July 1986 to August 1987 (Selochan, 1989:11-15). Then again, in December 1989, just when civilian authority over the military seemed to have already been functioning, another failed coup attempt was launched, which almost toppled down the presidency. After a decade of calm at the close of the century, the AFP barged once more into the political limelight when former AFP Chief of Staff Gen Angelo Reyes, along with the commanders of the Army, Navy and the Air Force, unexpectedly withheld their support from their Commander-in-Chief at the height of EDSA Dos, which eventually forced the former president to leave Malacanang (Trillanes, 2004:14). We will write a custom essay sample on The Armed Forces of the Philippines in the Politics of Today specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on The Armed Forces of the Philippines in the Politics of Today specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on The Armed Forces of the Philippines in the Politics of Today specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer Nevertheless, not all military interventions end in its favor, such as the July 2003 Oakwood incident, which ended in the detention and the filing of various administrative and criminal charges against about 300 officers and enlisted personnel. In 2006, an alleged aborted coup by a grand alliance among the CPP-NPA, the political opposition, and a number of military and PNP officers resulted in the declaration of a State of Emergency (Asian Political News, 2006) and the filing of a rebellion complaint against forty-nine (49) people, including a former senator and three (3) military and police generals (Asian Political News, 2006). In every case, mutinous forces had defied the government and had used its arms as a means of leverage against the political leadership in power. The five (5) coup attempts during the Aquino presidency left a total of 154 people dead and 812 wounded (Trillanes, 2004: 8-13). In the 1989 coup attempt alone, the economy lost by as much as P 1 billion (Davide, 1990: 378). Consequently, it seriously damaged the restoration of democracy and derailed the economy during President Aquino’s watch. We had been able to get the economy recovering but unfortunately with the 1989 coup attempt investments which had been ready to come to the Philippines suddenly were cancelled and investors had decided to go to other countries instead, Aquino said (Asian Political News, 2006). For the past two decades, military interventions have occurred continually and have remained a constant threat to the civilian-ruled government. In fact, a number of military interventions have been politically decisive i n unseating, destabilizing, and installing Presidents. Fortunately, none of the interventions ended in direct military rule, nonetheless, does it mean that military interventions cease as soon as a new leadership is installed? Contrary to traditional assumptions, the military has not totally abstained from politics. In practice, the Armed Forces of the Philippines is not purely apolitical[ii], rather it is an active political force that persistently intervenes, though in varying forms and degrees, in government politics. Claude Emerson Welch, Jr. , in his theory on civilian control of the military, posited: Civilian control is a matter of degree. All armed forces participate in politics in various fashions. They cannot be precluded from the political arena, given their organizational identity, autonomy, and functional specialization. Any military has an impact on its political system, with its political roles being â€Å"a question not of whether, but of how much and of what kind. † No military, in short, can be shorn of political influence, save through the rare step of total abolition (Welch, 1976: 2). As such, despite repeated calls for political neutrality within its ranks, the AFP leadership continues to behave and function in a manner opposite to Goodnow’s clear-cut politics-administration dichotomy (Shafritz and Hyde, 1997: 27-29). Instead, Dwight Waldo’s contention of a bureaucracy immersed in politics (Frederickson and Smith, 2003: 41) provides the platform for understanding the current trend of military politics[iii] in the Philippine bureaucracy. In view of the above premise, this paper attempts to validate the theory of ‘bureaucratic politics’ by arguing for the existence of politics within the country’s military bureaucracy based on inferences using Welch’ degrees of military intervention in politics (Welch, 1976: 3) and Huntington’s forms of military influence (Huntington, 1957: 88-89). Consequently, it hopes to provide the country’s political leaders a better picture of the military as a bureaucratic agency immersed in politics, thus putting the civilian government at a vantage point in effectively managing the AFP and consistently maintaining civilian supremacy. II. Overview of Bureaucratic Politics To begin with, a decent understanding of the theories of bureaucratic politics makes a good springboard towards a good comprehension of politics in the military bureaucracy. Bureaucratic politics, as it seeks to explain the policymaking role of administration and bureaucracy, rejects and views Wilson’s politics-administration dichotomy as an analytical convenience at the expense of theoretical development. In fact, according to Waldo, â€Å"Administration is not a technical and value-neutral activity separable from politics. Administration is politics. † Moreover, Lynn puts it clearly: â€Å"Politics and administration represented a synthesis rather than two neatly separable portions of the public policy enterprise. † Moreover, Meier argues succinctly: â€Å"Bureaucracies logically engage in politics of the first order. † As such, â€Å"bureaucracies and bureaucrats routinely engage in political behavior, hence the need to account theoretically for the bureaucracy’s political role. In a more practical point of view, Gaus explains: â€Å"Federal agencies don’t only carry out directives from Congress but independently shaped those directives while translating the vague intentions of statutes into specific government actions. † As a result, administrative theory had to account for politics, thus, bureaucracy obviously wields political power – as they are helping determine the will of the state. Therefore, Gaus concludes: â€Å"A theory of Public Administrati on means in our time a theory of politics also† (Frederickson and Smith, 2003: 41-43). III. The Officer Corps and the AFP In Huntington’s view, the military security of the society is the direct responsibility of the officer corps. As such, the officer corps is both a bureaucratic profession and a bureaucratic organization tasked for the management of violence. The enlisted personnel, though comprising the most part of the military establishment, are just a part of the organizational bureaucracy but not of the professional bureaucracy (Huntington, 1957: 15-17). Hence, the officer corps, based on the foregoing, is the rightful representation of the military bureaucracy. Accordingly, the AFP officer corps, though comprising only about a tenth of the total AFP strength, may fittingly represent the entire AFP bureaucracy. Moreover, due to the AFP’s highly hierarchical organizational structure and its strong adherence to the chain of command, the 10,884 officer corps may be aptly represented by their senior field and garrison commanders who are presently holding the top positions in the upper echelon of the AFP. Currently, AFP senior commanders may be classified according to their source of commission, such as the Philippine Military Academy (PMA), Officers’ Candidate School (OCS), Philippine Air Force Flying School (PAFFS), etc. Among them, PMA is the mandated primary source of commission of regular officers in the AFP. In the National Defense Act of 1935, the Commonwealth government formalized the establishment of the Philippine Military Academy (PMA) as the primary training institution and source of candidates for permanent commission in the Regular Force (The LAWPHiL Project, 2000). True to the given mandate, PMA graduates, since the post World War II era, have continually held the top leadership positions at the General Headquarters (GHQ) and in its three major services the Philippine Army (PA), Philippine Navy (PN), and the Philippine Air Force (PAF). In a longitudinal survey of the PMA classes from 1939 to 1971, it showed that out of an average of 62 graduates per class, 22 or about 35% became generals or flag officers[iv]. It peaked at an average of 51% during the Aquino administration while the single class with the highest number of generals and flag officers was the class of 1962 at 62% during President Ramos’ ncumbency. Surprisingly, its lowest average was during President Marcos’ presidency at 21% (PMA Alumni Register, 2004). Moreover, out of the thirty-six (36) Chiefs of Staff of the AFP from 1936 to present, thirty (30) or eighty-three per cent (83%) are regular members of the PMA Alumni Association Inc. (PMAAAI), while two (2) or six ( 6) per cent (6%) are honorary members (PMA Alumni Register, 2004). In fact, the current top leadership of the AFP, the Philippine National Police (PNP), and the Philippine Coast Guard (PCG) are all members of the PMAAAI, as shown below: Table 1. Current AFP, PNP, PCG Leadership Branch of Service |Commanding General |PMA Class | |GHQ |Gen Hermogenes C Esperon AFP |‘74 | |PA |MGen Alexander B Yano AFP |‘76 | |PN |VAdm Rogelio I Calunsag AFP |‘74 | |PAF |LtGen Horacio S Tolentino AFP |‘74 | |PNP |Dir Avelino I Razon, Jr. PNP |‘74 | |PCG |Adm Damian L Carlos PCG |‘74 | Source: PCG Website (2007); Ateneo de Davao ROTC Unit Website (2007) In addition, though comprising only a small percentage of the AFP officer corps, PMA graduates have consistently been appointed to assume coveted positions in the top echelons of the AFP, as shown below: Table 2. Percentage of PMA graduates as Generals/Flag Officers in the AFP |Branch of Service |Nr of Generals/Flag Officers in the |Nr of PMA Graduates |% | | |AFP | | | |General Headquarters 37 |27 |73 | |Philippine Army |28 |23 |82 | |Philippine Navy |18 |13 |72 | |Philippine Air Force |19 |9 |47 | |Total |102 |72 |71 | Source: Ateneo de Davao ROTC Unit Website (2007) In view of the aforementioned, the top leadership of the AFP may be presumed to be a domain of the PMA alumni. As a result, the PMAAAI, though a civilian entity (PMA Alumni Register, 2004), may be recognized as an informal representation of the top leadership of the military bureaucracy, thus any political influence it has may directly or indirectly reflect the level of political involvement of the AFP. IV. Dynamics of Politics in the AFP The context of military involvement in politics is a function of civilian control. A range of relationships between the military and the civilian government exists relative to the articulation, development, and implementation of policy. In a continuum, Welch presents the degree of military intervention in politics (Welch, 1976: 3): |Military Influence |Military Participation |Military Control | Military Control | |(Civilian Control) | |(with partners) |(without partners) | Fortunately, the country has never been under direct military rule, thus, this paper will not delve much on ‘military control’ due to lack of local experience, rather it will focus its succeeding discussions on ‘military influence’ and ‘military participation’ as the currently more relevant perspectives. In addition, it will also use the discussion to show the extent of the AFP’s involvement in politics. A. Military Influence â€Å"Military influence† in politics falls within the parameters of civilian control in democratic states and developing countries. In other words, along this range, civilian supremacy over the military is in effect and any military form of involvement in politics is considered as the â€Å"normal† form of civilian control and functions safely within Constitutional limits. Nevertheless, this political involvement is generally limited among senior officers holding top ranking positions. As such, involvement of junior officers in political affairs is strongly prohibited so as not to compromise the integrity of the military’s chain of command. Likewise, distinct lines are imposed that clearly separate military from political roles. Accordingly, this form of political influence may be confined to the military’s giving of technical knowledge to political leaders and does not contain any coercive power (Welch, 1976: 3-4). Welch went further to elucidate: Put in this perspective, civilian control means that the military lobbies as do other parts of the government; seeks to carry out a relatively specific set of policy objectives; and employs channels of decision-making with the military that do not breach its integrity as an institution, or, alternatively, ensures that this organizational integrity is subordinated to political institutions and parties (Welch, 1976: 2). Moreover, the political power of the military exists in two (2) forms, formal authority and informal influence. Unlike formal authority, which is ordered, structured, or legitimate power, informal influence stems from personality, wealth, knowledge, prestige, friendship, kinship, or a variety of other sources, which are more difficult to judge. Nonetheless, military influence may come in various forms or fashions and may be classified according to four rough indices (Huntington, 1957: 86-88): (1) The group affiliations of the officer corps and its leaders; (2) The economic and human resources subject to the authority of the officer corps and its leaders; 3) The hierarchical interpenetration of the officer corps and other groups; and (4) The prestige and popularity of the officer corps and its leaders (Huntington: 1957: 88-89). However, showing that the military possesses political influence and proving its use to achieve its ‘corporate interests’[v] are two difficult are as of inquiries. Nevertheless, based on the foregoing, this paper will endeavor to show the military’s substantial political influence and its probable usage by inferring from current sources and recent developments. 1. The group affiliations of the officer corps and its leaders. The higher the pre-service, in-service, and post-service affiliations of the officer corps and its leaders, the higher the political influence of the military. The degree and character of its affiliations with other influential and powerful groups and individuals determine the extent of the military’s political influence (Huntington, 1957: 88). As presented earlier, the PMAAAI is presumed as an informal representation of the AFP top leadership, thus any affiliation it has with influential groups and individuals enhances the AFP’s political influence. For the past seven (7) decades, the PMAAAI has conferred honorary memberships to a number of powerful and influential figures. Among its distinguished honorary members, past and present, include distinguished individuals from the three branches of the government and the private sector, as shown below: Table 3. PMAAAI Distinguished Honorary Associate Members (Past Present) |Position |Number |Distinguished Individuals | |President |2 |Pres Gloria M. Arroyo | | | |Pres Ferdinand E. Marcos | |Prime Minister |1 |PM Cesar EA Virata | |Senator |7 |Sen Pres Manuel B Villar, Jr. |Congressman |7 |Speaker Ramon Mitra, Sr. | |Ambassador |3 |Amb Carlos P Romulo | |Cabinet Secretary |7 |Sec Alberto G Romulo | |Governor |3 |Gov Ferdinand R Marcos, Jr. | |Justice |2 |Hon Reynato S Puno | |Publisher |1 |Mr. Maximo V Soliven | Source: PMA Alumni Register (2004); PMAAAI Annual Report AY 2006-2007 Apart from its distinguished civilian honorary and associate members, the PMAAAI also includes a number of highly successful honorary and associate members from the different uniformed services, as shown below: Table 4. PMAAAI Distinguished Honorary Associate Members in the Military (Past Present) |Rank |Number |Distinguished Individuals | |Generals Flag Officers |56 |Gen Fabian C Ver AFP | |Colonels Navy Captains |56 | | Source: PMA Alumni Register (2004) The military also enjoys political influence through a number of elected and appointed government officials who are currently commissioned officers in the Reserve Force of the AFP. From 2000 to 2003 alone, records show that 87 government officials, 65 of which are elected officials, were commissioned in the Reserve Force. In the 14th Congress, five senators are commissioned officers in the Reserve Force with the rank of lieutenant colonel: Sen. Loren B. Legarda, Sen. Francis Joseph G. Escudero, Sen. Juan Flavier, Sen. Edgardo J. Angara, and Sen. Richard Gordon (O/J8, AFP, 2007). 2. The economic and human resources subject to the authority of the officer corps and its leaders. The higher the financial allocation and the number of people serving under the armed services, either as a civilian employee or as a military personnel, the greater the influence of the military (Huntington, 1957: 88). In the Philippine context, this form of military influence in politics is highly evident on how the Department of National Defense and the AFP has effectively lobbied for an increase in its annual appropriations, troop strength, personnel benefits, etc. Among the different departments in the national government, DND has the second highest number of personnel based on its incurred Personal Services for FY 2003, 2004 2005, as shown below: Table 5. National Government Personal Services FY 2003, 2004, 2005 |Department |2003 |2004 |2005 | | |Amount |% |Amount |% |Amount |% | |NG |[pic] 279. 6 B |100. 0 | [pic] 282. 1B |100. 0 |[pic] 298. 9B |100. 0 | |DEPED |96. 1B |34. 4 |92. 2B |32. 7 |97. 9B |32. 7 | |DND |56. 3B |20. 1 |59. 6B |21. 1 |62. 8B |21. 0 | |DILG |45. 7B |16. 3 |47. 6B |16. |50. 8B |17. 0 | Source: COA (2003, 2004 2005) In fact, among the 3 biggest occupational groups in the national government, the uniformed personnel of the AFP is the second highest at 133, 783 (DBM, 2007), with teachers as the biggest at 449,340 and the PNP uniformed personnel at 115,499 for a close third (CSC, 2004). Moreover, aside from the AFP’s personnel in the active service, it also currently maintains a combined reserve force from the Philippine Army, Philippine Air Force, and the Philippine Navy of about 285,424 personnel (O/J8, AFP, 2007), as shown in the table below: Table 7. AFP Reserve Force Build-up |Officers |Enlisted Perso nnel |Total | |Ready reserve |5,072 |77,137 |82,209 | |Standby reserve |3,797 |186,317 |190,114 | |Affiliated reserve |381 |8,085 |8,466 | |Technical reserve |4,635 |   |4,635 | |Total |13,885 |271,539 |285,424 | Source: O/J8, AFP (2007) Furthermore, aside from reservists in the aviation, engineering, and maritime industries, the AFP Reserve Force also has a Technical Reserve that consists of practitioners from various professions, as shown in Table 8. Accordingly, its wide representation from various sectors indicates its broad political influence in the private sector. Table 8. Technical Reserve Profile Profession |Number | |Lawyers |780 | |Priests, pastors, imams |112 | |Medical Doctors |1,839 | |Veterinarians |62 | |Dentists |393 | |Nurses |1,221 | |Medical Assistants |228 | |TOTAL |4,675 | Source: O/J8, AFP (2007) Moreover, DND was also consistently among the top ten departments/offices in the national government in terms of allotment releases, obligations incurred, and amounts disbursed as indicated in the Annual COA Report for FY 2004 2005, as shown in the table below: Table 6. DND Allotments, Obligations Disbursements for FY ‘03, ‘04 ‘05 | |Allotments |Rank |Obligations |Rank |Disbursements |Rank | |2003 |[pic] 50. 62 B |3rd |[pic] 48. 40 B |3rd |[pic] 43. 46 B |3rd | |2004 |[pic] 41. 77 B |6th |[pic] 41. 46 B |3rd |[pic] 35. 78 B |2nd | |2005 |[pic] 24. 8 B |5th |[pic] 24. 78 B |4th |[pic] 24. 12 B |3rd | Source: COA (2003, 2004, 2005) Furthermore, during the fiscal year 2005, PMA got the third biggest appropriation among the state universities and colleges (SUCs) in the country despite having a student population of only about one thousand one hundred (1,100) cadets, which came out as the highest per capita cost among SUCs at around five hundred thousand pesos (P 500 , 000) for every cadet per year or about two million pesos (P 2M) for each graduate within a period of four years, as shown below. Table 7. Top 5 SUCs in the FY 2005 Appropriations State Universities and Colleges (SUCs) |2005 Appropriation | |University of the Philippines System |4,162,794,000 | |Mindanao State University |932,008,000 | |Philippine Military Academy |568,170,000 | |Polytechnic University of the Philippines |512,887,000 | |Don Mariano Marcos State University | 293,599,000 | Source: DBM Website (2007) Aside from its regular appropriations, the AFP also gets from time to time an increased funding for its Internal Security Operations. In June 2006, the Philippine Daily Inquirer reported that the government was releasing one (1) billion pesos as first installment to finance the AFP’s renewed drive to crush the communist insurgency (PDI, 2006). The military also effectively lobbied for an increase in promotion quota for major generals and rear admirals from 26% to 3 0% through the passage of Republic Act No. 9188. vi] Lastly, per Executive Order No. 611, the military received an increase of thirty pesos (P30) per day in subsistence allowance and a one hundred twenty pesos (P120) per month in hazard pay effective July 1, 2007. 3. The hierarchical interpenetration of the officer corps and other groups. The higher the number of military personnel assuming civilian positions in government, the higher the influence of the military. For example, â€Å"an increase in the total number of military men occupying positions of authority in the normally civilian branches of government warrants a conclusion as to an increase in the degree of military influence† (Huntington, 1957: 89). In the Philippine experience, the practice of appointing active military officers in civilian positions in government started as early as during the term of President Magsaysay, which peaked during the martial law years (Selochan, 1989: 4-7). Some of the military appointees of President Magsaysay are shown below: Table 8. Military Appointees of President Magsaysay |Executive Secretary |Col. Fred Ruiz | |Acting NBI Director/USEC, DND |Maj. Jose Crisol | |Secretary of Defense |Col. Sotero Cabahug | |Secretary of Labor |BGen Eleuterio Adevoso | |Usec of Agriculture Natural Resources |LtCol. Jaime Ferrer | |Chairman, Pres’l Complaints Action Comm |LtCol. Frisco San Juan | |Gen. Mgr, Manila Railroad Company |Col. Salvador Villa | |Commissioner of Customs |Col. Jaime Velasquez | |Pres’l Legal Adviser |Col. Mamerto Montemayor | |Pres’l Private Secretary |Capt. Noli Reyes | Source: Selochan (1989) In the 1987 Constitution, such practice had become unconstitutional. [vii] However, the habit of post EDSA 1 administrations of appointing retired military officers in civilian positions still resembles the said practice. Although technically military officers revert back to their civilian status upon retirement, a number of them, while serving in civilian posts in government, continue to bring with them their â€Å"military ethos,† which clashes with the prevailing â€Å"democratic ethos† (Asian Political News, 2003). 4. Prestige and popularity of the officer corps and its leaders. The higher the reputation of the military in public opinion, most especially among broad or major sectors, the higher is the influence of the military (Huntington, 1957: 89). From 1987 to 2001, more than 50 former military men have actually run for public office (Asian Political News, 2003). Despite a number of scandals and allegations of corruption within the military, a number of former military officers successfully won elective positions and became prominent figures in the political arena, as shown in the table below: Table 9. Former Military Officers Holding Elective Positions (Past Present) |Position |Number |Distinguished Individuals | |President |1 |Pres. Fidel V. Ramos | |Senator |4 |Sen. Panfilo M. Lacson | |Congressman |6 |Cong. Roilo S. Golez | |Governor |2 |Gov. Amado T. Espino, Jr. | |Mayor |1 |Mayor Raul C. Tupas | Source: Senate Website (2007); House of Representatives Website (2007); Department of the Interior and Local Government Website (2007) Based on the data presented above, which covered Huntington’s four (4) indices of military influence, it can be clearly inferred that the leadership of the AFP officer corps, majority of whom are PMA alumni, possesses and exerts ‘military influence’ in lobbying for increase in appropriations and number of personnel, granting of promotions in rank and assignments to top AFP positions, and later on, for appointment in civilian government posts upon retirement in the military service. This political phenomenon parallels the US military’s successful political maneuvering in Washington since the Vietnam War, which since then, have brought them influence, power, and appropriations despite after losing a war (Buzzanco, 1996). B. Military Participation â€Å"Military participation† in politics is similar in kind but different in degree with that of â€Å"military influence. † In â€Å"military participation,† the â€Å"normal† or legal a venues of politicking in â€Å"military influence,† such as lobbying for bigger appropriations, increase in personnel strength, funds for additional troop benefits, etc. becomes more intense, with the military applying pressure or resorting into â€Å"blackmail† of political leaders (Welch, 1976: 4). The Aquino administration experienced tremendous pressure from persistent threats of rebellion from elements of the RAM-SFP-YOU and the necessity of securing the loyalty of government forces. After four (4) successive failed coup attempts and two (2) aborted coup plots from 1986-1987, the Aquino government responded to the rebellion by granting AFP personnel pay and allowance increases. In 1988, the AFP budget was overwhelmingly approved by Congress making it â€Å"the second biggest recipient and the only institution whose allocation Congress increased despite driving an added 4 per cent in government deficits† (Javate-de Dios, 1988:314). However, despite the increase in AFP appropriations and in personnel pay and allowances, another coup attempt was launched in 1989. Once again, the government responded by granting the military with pay increases. Congress, for its part, rushed the passage of bills to grant pay increases to soldiers. Salary increases even reached up to 106% for a master sergeant and 36% for a general. After that, three more pay increases were given to soldiers, of which two were given during the time of President Ramos and the other one during the term of President Estrada (Trillanes, 2004). In most cases, however, the initiative for greater military participation most often comes from civilians and not from the military (Welch, 1976: 4). The 2001 People Power revolt was a civilian-initiated uprising coupled by the military’s participation through the sudden withdrawal by the AFP leadership of support from its Commander-in-Chief, which forced the latter to abdicate from office. The successful and peaceful ending of EDSA 2 might have taken a different conclusion without the military’s participation or had the military remained loyal to the former president. Nevertheless, the said participation was a result of a series of meetings between the military and the camp of former Vice-President Arroyo. In his book, Historying Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo, Nick Joaquin clearly narrates the chain of events: â€Å"It was they (military) who contacted me, not me who contacted them. And these were aside from my earlier meetings with those five groups volunteering to protect my right to succeed the President. The subsequent meetings with the military began, I think, with Victor Corpus, towards the end of October. And it was never a question of me supporting them, no. They were going to support me, period – for a constitutional succession† – President Arroyo (Joaquin, 2002: 225). â€Å"†¦ Apparently there had been talks with the military on Thursday night, and the military were presumably now discussing among themselves whether to shift their allegiance to the vice-president†¦ I remember Gloria warning me not to let anybody know something was expected to happen that afternoon. Actually it happened at noon: Gloria had lunch with Armed Forces Chief Angelo Reyes at the Corinthian and she got definite info on how she stood with the military. That afternoon she met again with General Reyes but this time he was with the four service commanders. And one by one those four stood before her and declared what was their decision – Rene Corona[viii] (Joaquin, 2002: 227-228). † The political leadership in power, besieged by enormous demands from militant sectors and threatened with expulsion from political rivals, oftentimes turns to the military to secure its political clout and perpetuate itself in power. In this case, political decisions are made by a combination of civilian and military leaders (Welch, 1976: 4). President Marcos, in order to perpetuate himself in power, declared Martial Law. During that time, the country experienced a deluge in the number of officers in the active service assuming civilian positions in government. From that period, he relied on the armed forces to retain power for another fourteen (14) years (Selochan, 1989: 32). President Arroyo, since assuming power in 2001, has constantly faced threats from the political opposition, the civil society, and some rebel forces in the military, highlighted by the EDSA Tres uprising in 2001 (Wikipedia, 2007), the Magdalo Oakwood mutiny in 2003 (Wikipedia, 2007), and the 2006 alleged aborted coup by a grand alliance among the political opposition, CPP/NPA, and elite forces in the Army, Marines, and the PNP (Wikipedia, 2007). Fortunately, President Arroyo continues to enjoy the loyalty of her trusted generals in the AFP and the PNP (CenPEG, 2005). The practice of appointing retired military officers in government resembles â€Å"military participation† in politics. After the Marcos dictatorship, President Aquino continued with the practice by appointing Lt. Gen. Manuel Yan as acting foreign secretary, Maj. Gen. Rafael Ileto as defense secretary (a civilian portfolio the president later gave to Gen. Ramos), and nearly 20 other retired officers to various top civilian posts. During the Ramos presidency, at least 100 ex-military officers were also appointed to civilian posts and board seats of major government-owned and controlled corporations. President Estrada, during his brief stint as president, appointed at least 18 former military officers to civilian posts in government (Asian Political News, 2003). Based on the latest count, President Arroyo has already appointed in the cabinet and in top positions in the bureaucracy about twenty-five (25) retired senior military officers, including five (5) former AFP Chiefs of staff and four (4) PNP chiefs. Among the appointees, there are seven (7) cabinet level appointees, four (4) ambassadors/envoys, and fourteen (14) agency heads/chiefs of agencies (CenPEG, 2006). However, in retrospect, partnership with the military does not always assure continuity in power, such was the case of former President Marcos and President Estrada. The late strongman was toppled down from office through a mutiny initiated by the partnership of his defense minister and now senator, Juan Ponce Enrile, and former President Ramos, then the AFP Vice Chief of Staff. The initial drama of the mutiny may vividly be pictured through the exchange of the following statements released at the outset (Mamot, 1986: 69): â€Å"Listen to reason and stop this stupidity. † – Pres. Ferdinand E. Marcos (Malacanang Palace) â€Å"Mr. President, I hope you’re listening. Enough is enough. Your time is up. † – Minister Juan Ponce Enrile (Camp Aguinaldo) â€Å"Stay put and wa

Understanding Quantum Optics

Understanding Quantum Optics Quantum optics is a field of quantum physics that deals specifically with the interaction of photons with matter. The study of individual photons is crucial to understanding the behavior of electromagnetic waves as a whole. To clarify exactly what this means, the word quantum refers to the smallest amount of any physical entity that can interact with another entity. Quantum physics, therefore, deals with the smallest particles; these are incredibly tiny sub-atomic particles which behave in unique ways. The word optics, in physics, refers to the study of light. Photons are the smallest particles of light (though it is important to know that photons can behave as both particles and waves). Development of Quantum Optics and the Photon Theory of Light The theory that light moved in discrete bundles (i.e. photons) was presented in Max Plancks 1900 paper on the ultraviolet catastrophe in black body radiation. In 1905, Einstein expanded on these principles in his explanation of the photoelectric effect to define the photon theory of light. Quantum physics developed through the first half of the twentieth century largely through work on our understanding of how photons and matter interact and inter-relate. This was viewed, however, as a study of the matter involved more than the light involved. In 1953, the maser was developed (which emitted coherent microwaves) and in 1960 the laser (which emitted coherent light). As the property of the light involved in these devices became more important, quantum optics began being used as the term for this specialized field of study. Findings Quantum optics (and quantum physics as a whole) views electromagnetic radiation as traveling in the form of both a wave and a particle at the same time. This phenomenon is called wave-particle duality. The most common explanation of how this works is that the photons move in a stream of particles, but the overall behavior of those particles is determined by a quantum wave function that determines the probability of the particles being in a given location at a given time. Taking findings from quantum electrodynamics (QED), it is also possible to interpret quantum optics in the form of the creation and annihilation of photons, described by field operators. This approach allows the use of certain statistical approaches that are useful in analyzing the behavior of light, although whether it represents what is physically taking place is a matter of some debate (although most people view it as just a useful mathematical model). Applications Lasers (and masers) are the most obvious application of quantum optics. Light emitted from these devices is in a coherent state, which means the light closely resembles a classical sinusoidal wave. In this coherent state, the quantum mechanical wave function (and thus the quantum mechanical uncertainty) is distributed equally. The light emitted from a laser is, therefore, highly ordered, and generally limited to essentially the same energy state (and thus the same frequency wavelength).

Modifying Words and Phrases to Express Opinions

Modifying Words and Phrases to Express Opinions There are a number of words and phrases that can help express your opinion. These words and phrases are common in creative writing, writing reports, and other types of writing intended to persuade. Giving Your Opinion Using a modifying word can help you express your opinion when making a statement. For example: Investing in high-tech stocks is risky. You could agree or disagree with this statement. Using a word such as undoubtedly expresses your own opinion about the statement. Here are some other modifying words and phrases that can help: (Most) assuredly adjective: ​These investments will most assuredly help to build equity.Without a doubt clause: Without a doubt, this investment is risky.It is doubtful that clause: It is doubtful that we will succeed with this attitude. Qualifying Your Opinion Sometimes, when giving an opinion it is important to qualify what you say by leaving room for other interpretations. For example, There is hardly any doubt that we will succeed. leaves room for other interpretations (hardly any doubt a little room for doubt). Here are some other modifying words and phrases that can help qualify your opinion: Almost/nearly adjective: Its nearly impossible to make a mistake.Largely/mainly noun: Its largely a matter of getting the facts right.Many ways/some ways it/this/that, etc: In many ways, ​its a sure bet. Making a Strong Assertion Certain words mark strong opinions about something you believe. For example, It is not true that I implied you were wrong. is strengthened by adding the word just: It is just not true that I implied you were wrong. Here are some other modifying words and phrases that can help strengthen an assertion: Simply/just adjective: It is simply wrong to believe that about John.Mere noun: That is a mere distraction from the main point.Merely/only the first, last: This is merely the last in a number of problems.Sheer/utter noun: The sheer idiocy of the project speaks for itself. Emphasizing Your Point When stating that an action is increasingly true, these phrases help to emphasize. For example, We have decided over and over again that we need to continue down this path. Here are some other phrases that help to emphasize your point: More than adjective: It is more than likely he will fail.More and more adjective: Im afraid it is becoming more and more difficult to believe you. Giving Examples When stating your opinion it is important to give examples to support your statements. For example, It is more than likely he will fail. In the case of Mr. Smith, he failed to follow-up and caused us to pay heavy fines. The following phrases are used to give examples to back up your opinion. Such as noun: Critics of this policy, such as Jack Beam of Smith and Sons, say that ...This is an example of clause: This is an example of our need to diversify investments.In the case of noun: In the case of Ms. Anderson, the company decided to ... Summarizing Your Opinion Finally, it is important to summarize your opinion at the end of a report or other persuasive text. For example: In the end, it is important to remember that ... These phrases can be used to summarize your opinion: All in all,: All in all, I feel we need to diversify due to ...In the end,: In the end, we must decide quickly to implement this plan.In conclusion,: In conclusion, let me repeat my strong support for ...

Double standard for sexual relations Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Double standard for sexual relations - Essay Example A girl with the same sexual experience will surely become subject to ridicule and disrespect. Guys will take advantage of her, use her, and try to get her to bed. She will have a hard time having girlfriends as she will surely be avoided and despised out of disgust. She will surely become the talk of the school and will be labeled as a "slut." The stud-slut system is but one of the various manifestations of sexual double standard in the society where we live. Men are not exempt from the injustice of double standards. Having friends from the opposite sex during a relationship is also subject to the sexuality of who's making friends with whom. Girls will always tend to justify their relationships with other guys since they are known to be "always in control of their emotions" and are "able to separate boyfriends from boy friends." The situation is a lot more different when guys are concerned. A man who has a close friend while in a relationship is always confronted and accused of dishonorable things especially unfaithfulness. He may even be charged for keeping that special friend in times of "loneliness." With these experiences, it is apparent that double standard has become a bitter fact of life. It is one of the things which I need to live with. However, I am totally against sexual double standards. ... Double standard greatly violates one tenet of justice known as impartiality-the principle that "same standards be applied to all people, without regard to subjective bias or favoritism." I believe that the existence of double standard clearly implies the toleration of discrimination, unfairness, inequality, and prejudice. Thus, in order to promote justice in the society, double standard should be eliminated. I strongly support that men and women should have a fair playing field where each one receives equal reaction and recognition of what they "do" and not of what they "are." The widespread double standard in our society is warranted by various justifications. Most individuals have already taken the existence of double standard for granted arguing that sexual double standard is natural and that's the way things should be. Society has readily accepted that some things are naturally "men's" things while some are "women's." A good example of this is the widespread perception that men are polygamous, allowing them to sleep around even if they are in a relationship while women are expected to be faithful to their respective husbands. However, viewing that the existence of double standard as natural is also another way of accepting that prejudice and injustice are natural phenomena. The above illustrations of double standard emphasizes the fact that double standard tolerates misbehavior of one gender using "human nature" as a cover up. In our society, infidelity is perceived to be acceptable only when committed by the male population. The argument here is that, misbehavior should be totally reprimanded and eradicated as it destructs and endangers the morality of the whole community. I am filled with disgust just thinking about the number of families being shattered by

Preservation of Biodiversity Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Preservation of Biodiversity - Essay Example In pre-Colombian times, this area supported an estimated 700,000 persons (a multiple of todays population) in a sustainable form† (Lutz, n.d.). Interest of human beings needs to be served first. All countries should not be held to the same standards in the preservation of endangered habitats and species because different countries have different levels of economic strength, and socioeconomic and political issues. It is not practicable to establish same standards of preservation in all countries because different countries give different priority to the conservation of biodiversity, and the stance of individual nations is governed by their cultural and religious beliefs, that often vary across nations. Traditional practices such as whaling and killing wildlife for ivory, tiger bones, and rhinoceros horns, etc. are not justifiable because there are better alternatives to these which are not only environment friendlier but also good for the well-being of animals. Conventionally, b ones retrieved from animals have been of little to no use for humans. Mostly, these bones have been used for ornamental purposes which can be lived

Impact of Police Community Support Officers

Impact of Police Community Support Officers Abstract Police forces across England and Wales in 2002 have been provided with a new member of the police force to support police officers. These Police Community Support Officers (PCSOs) were introduced in the Police Reform Act 2002 to address disorder, low level crime, high visible patrols, and public reassurance. This Act gave a list of limited standard and discretionary police powers to PCSOs. The role of the PCSO as an extended member of the police family links the community to the police, without all the powers typically associated with policing. This limitation has cast doubt over their effectiveness within the local community. This report shows how powers vested in PCSOs have evolved to address issues of public confusion around their capabilities. Then the report argues that PCSOs patrols have made an impact upon crime levels and analyses criticism made about the PCSOs. This Report uses the British Crime Survey (BCS) trends in certain crime from 1981 to 2007. The trends show that since the PCSOs introduction in 2002 the majority of crime levels have started to decrease. Finally this report critically debates remarks made by David Gilbertson about PCSOs and compares them against case studies that have been conducted to find that these remarks are not at all true. Acronym ACPO Association of Chief Police Officers ASB Anti Social Behaviour BBC British Broadcasting Corporation BCS British Crime Survey BCU Basic Command Unit CDA Crime and Disorder Act 1998 CSO Community Support Officer CSOs Community Support Officers FPN Fixed Penalty Notice PCSO Police Community Support Officer PCSOs Police Community Support Officers PRA Police Reform Act 2002 Introduction Policing in the United Kingdom (U.K) is undergoing considerable change; it is changing in profound ways, engineering the introduction of Police Community Support Officers (PCSOs). Ever since the introduction of PCSOs in the Police Reform Act (PRA) 2002, there has been much criticism ranging from their need in the community, to their effectiveness in their roles within society. These issues need to be addressed in order to give PCSOs the recognition they deserve. This report will show if the criticisms made are true or false in regards to PCSOs effectiveness around their roles within society. In order to do this it will seek to answer the following three aims:- Aim one How PCSOs powers have evolved over the course of time Aim two Have PCSOs impacted recorded crime whilst on patrol? This would act as statistical towards their effectiveness in society. Aim three Finally it aims to answer whether unpleasant claims made by Gilbertson are true or false, by comparing and contrasting studies that have been conducted. Hypothesis – This report predicts that PCSOs are needed and are effective in their roles. As a result the report aims to add a new dimension to resources available surrounding the PCSOs need and effectiveness. Structure of Report The report is presented in four chapters: Chapter One: The Police Community Support Officers (PCSOs) and their Functionality This chapter provides the history on the PCSO. In addition it explores the PCSOs roles and how their powers have evolved to address issues of public confusion. Chapter Two: The Police Community Support Officers (PCSOs) on Patrol This chapter looks at what PCSOs do on patrol and what the main issue they would face whilst on patrol is? Finally using the British Crime Survey trends on crime it assesses if PCSOs have made an impact on crime levels, since their introduction. Chapter Three: Gilbertson perspective on PCSOs against studies This chapter simply critically debates a certain remarks made by David Gilbertson about PCSOs using case studies that have been conducted. Chapter Four: Conclusion and Recommendations Simply brings together the main points that arise from pervious chapter to answer the main aims of this report and will state all recommendations that may have been expressed in the previous chapters. Literature Review Over this last decade, there has been considerable change in the way in which neighborhood policing is carried out. One of these changes has been the introduction of the Police Community Support Officers (PCSOs); PCSOs were first introduced in the Police Reform Act 2002. Since the introduction of PCSOs in 2002 there has been much criticism ranging from their, need in the community, to their effectiveness in their roles within society. There are limited resources surrounding the issues of need and effectiveness on PCSOs, this may be due to their relatively recent introduction. However this review will look at some available resources in order to compare and contrast the effectiveness of PCSOs. In doing so my study aims to add a new dimension to resources available surrounding the PCSOs need and effectiveness. The literature surrounding the introduction of PCSOs, Cooper et al (2007) Paskell (2007) and Crawford et al (2004) agreed that PCSOs were introduced in the Police Reform Act 2002 and also agree on the roles and powers PCSOs posses. However the aims of each studies vary, Cooper et al (2007) study is conducted for the Home Office. The Home Office funded this study due to the demands for a national evaluation of PCSOs. There were three key aims for Cooper et al study, these were; first to provide a national profile on PCSOs in terms of their activities, deployment, designated powers and demographics. The second was to provide indications of the impact PCSOs have on the public, in terms of their levels of reassurance, their perceptions and an understanding of their roles. The final aim was to provide indications of impact PCSOs on low level crime/disorder, incidents and anti social behavior (ASB). The methods used by Cooper et al (2007) were both quantitative and qualitative to gain research. The variety of data collected provided a stronger reliability around their findings as the data collected was of a large capacity. Data on a national level was collected from a survey of forces and a survey of PCSOs, by means of questionnaires. This is very reliable source of research as it done national and can be used as a national piece of evidence. On a local level three forces where chosen as case studies and from each force four areas were selected for a detailed study. Two of these areas were control areas where PCSOs had not been deployed, and the other two areas where PCSOs had been deployed for some time. Across the four forces interviews were conducted in police forces to collect data on a wide range of issues including, PCSOs deployment, supervision, training, induction and integration. The interviews were conducted on the two areas where PCSOs were deployed. Also data was collected from the control areas, after PCSOs were deployed, on their impact on crime levels for a two week period. This is reliable as the range of evidence collected is immense, due to the interviews carried out over four different forces. Controls were used, for the data to be compared with, as this is very important. This ensures the data collected was overall a result of the PCSOs alone, as they were not present in the control force areas. However the research should have been carried out for more than two weeks to gain more valid results, enhancing the reliability of their findings. Also the reliability of Cooper et al (2007) research can be improved if they could carry out their study again, in the same manner. This would allow the two studies to be compared and contrasted to determine if PCSOs are effective. Cooper et al (2007) concluded from their research that there was a need for PCSOs, as they act as visible and familiar presence through foot patrol and community engagement. As this was an issue due to police officers having less time to carry out these roles. This is an important piece of literature to my study as it tells me there is a need for the PCSOs. However Cooper et al (2007) did state that there were a range of factors that limited the PCSOs effectiveness. How PCSOs are deployed, how integrated they are and staff turnover that may impinge these requirements. These factors even though will not be considered in my study, still will need to be understood. They may provide valuable insight into the roles of the PCSOs and what they encounter on patrol. Crawford et al (2004) investigated if PCSOs and other members of the extended police family had impacted recorded crime? This study was funded by University of Leeds Centre for Criminal Justice Studies. Crawford et al compared trends in crime levels in the cities of Leeds and Bradford, also conducting a study which used a twin site public opinion survey to assess the impact of PCSOs on the public (2004). Crawford et al (2004) research appeared to provide positive light on PCSOs and other members of the extended police family, who can have an impact in relation to recorded crime. Crawford et al (2004) study showed that overall crime rates fell in these cities where PCSOs had been deployed. However Crawford et al (2004) was cautious around the interpretation of their findings, concluding that it is difficult to attribute changes in crime to PCSOs alone. The twin site public opinion survey found that PCSOs are a popular innovation within communities and the public perceived an increase in police patrolling. This is a valuable source of information of what the public thinks of the PCSOs, also with the comparison of crime statistics would show if PCSOs have contributed to crime reduction since the deployment. However it can not be used as a national evaluation of what the entire population thinks of the PCSOs or can show how it has impacted other communities. Furthermore, it may only be seen as valid for the cities of Bradford and Leeds, and invalid for other cities nationwide, as opinions of PCSOs may be different in other cities. Invalid due to PCSOs powers being changed as of 1st December 2007 (Home Office 2007) and the research was conducted two years on from when PCSOs initial introduction, which may be seen as less time to assess them. This is useful to my study as it tells me there may be other factors that have impacted crime levels, something which will be touched on in my study. Paskell (2007) on the other hand started conducting their research in 1998 to 2006, on 12 representative disadvantaged neighbourhoods, looking into key factors with neighborhood decline and renewal. Also it was documented in their research on government regeneration and housing renewal. In 2006 Paskell completed their final rounds of visits on these neighborhoods. This research was intended for another purpose but also led to their report in 2006 on ‘Plastic Police or Community Support? : The Role of Police Community Support Officer with in low-income Neighborhoods’. Paskell (2007) research is more valid as it has been conducted over a longer period of time, from before the PCSO existence and few years after the enactment and can be used as more persuasive argument of their impact. Paskell (2007) agrees with Cooper et al (2007), that PCSOs involvement was evident to policing and beyond. However Paskell (2007) did note that the research on PCSOs was conducted shortly after they were introduced and suggests may be PCSOs need more time to make impact before they can be analyzed on their effectiveness. All three research studies showed PCSOs in a positive light, being an asset to the community. The information provided by Cooper et al (2007) study on the effectiveness of PCSOs, roles and powers of PCSOs and overall background on PCSOS, is the beneficial for my study as it provides knowledge on PCSOs. However it is not all thumbs up for the PCSOs, as they have come across certain criticism, such as from David Gilbertson â€Å"Preventative patrolling, once the jewel in the crown of British policing, has been abandoned [] to be replaced by an imitation service delivered by semi-trained auxiliaries†¦Ã¢â‚¬ . Gilbertson claims that PCSOs are imitations of police officers, and that the funding for PCSOs should just be used to recruit more police officers, who are fully trained, unlike the PCSOs. Just like the three research studies showed limitations, there are limitations for the study I intend to carry out. The lack of literature and valid research limits my research; also the lack of time given to conduct the study limits the possibility of gaining valid and reliable results. Even still I wish to carry out the study on PCSOs, to provide more clarity on the topic of PCSOs using the limited literature and studies around. In doing so my study aims to answer gaps overlooked by these scholars; firstly how PCSOs powers have evolved over the course of time, secondly have PCSOs impacted recorded crime whilst on patrol. Finally it aims to answer if such criticisms made by Gilbertson are true or false, by comparing and contrasting studies that have been conducted. Research Methodology Over this last decade, there has been considerable change in the way in which neighborhood policing is being carried out. One of these changes has been the introduction of the Police Community Support Officers (PCSOs). PCSOs were first introduced in the Police Reform Act 2002 (PRA). Since the introduction of PCSOs in 2002 there has been much criticism ranging from their, need in the community, to their effectiveness in their roles within society. There are limited resources surrounding the issues of need and effectiveness on PCSOs, this may be due to their relatively recent introduction. The aims of the research to be conducted will seek to address the following issues in regards to PCSOs: Aim one How PCSOs powers have evolved over the course of time Aim two Have PCSOs impacted recorded crime whilst on patrol? Aim three If criticisms regarding PCSOs effectiveness around their roles within society are true or false, by analyzing the data collected from this study. The first two aims can be found without the need to gain extra research or independent research. Aim one can be found by simply looking at the literature around on the PCSOs, and aim two will be answered by using the British Crime Survey Statistics on trends in Crime from the year 1981 to 2007. Crime trends in overall crime will tell what crime levels were, before the PCSOs were enacted, and since their enactment if they have changed. To assess if certain criticism made about PCSOs effectiveness around their roles within society are true or false, this report will collect research surrounding the publics view on PCSOs effectiveness and if the public feel they are needed. The methods that will be used to gain the necessary data to be analyzed will be questionnaires. The questionnaires will be carried out across the nation in ten cities were PCSOs have been deployed, with a sample size of five hundred people per city. Due to the lack of funding, questionnaires are the best option in obtaining data from the public on if they believe PCSOs are effective. Also the lack of funding would mean it will be hard to carry out a bigger sample size or carry out the questionnaires for more cities. By doing questionnaires the advantages are gaining research quick and effectively. Disadvantages are respondents will not be able to express their views, data may take a long time to analyze, there could be the possibility of the same respondent answering the same questionnaire and some public members will not be willing to answer the questionnaire. To reduce these issues the questionnaire will have an incentive to attract people to carry out the questionnaire, for example by being put in to a prize draw for an IPod Nano. Also the questionnaire will ask closed questions, with answers given for respondents to choose from. For example; how often do you see PCSOs on patrol- Most of the time, some of the time, do not see them at all? This will allow for easier analysis of answers and it will be easier to categorize questions onto a graph. The questionnaire will consist of a range of questions that are related to PCSOs, with the main aim to address aim three. However, before the questionnaire could be conducted, the study hit fatal problems which terminated the possibility of carrying out the questionnaires. The problem was time and no funding. No funding made it impossible to hire people to carry out the questionnaires and resulted to lack of time for it to carry out research across the nation. This therefore meant that there would not be any research to be analyzed. Nonetheless this report will address this issue by looking at what studies have been done; it will bring together these studies to answer aim three. It will use the following studies that where done by Cooper et al (2007), Crawford et al (2004) and Hiley (2005). Cooper et al (2007) The methods used by Cooper et al (2007) were both quantitative and qualitative to gain research. With the aim; first to provide a national profile on PCSOs in terms of their activities, deployment, designated powers and demographics. The second was to provide indications of the impact PCSOs have on the public, in terms of their levels of reassurance, their perceptions and an understanding of their roles. The final aim was to provide indications of impact PCSOs on low level crime/disorder, incidents and anti social behavior (ASB) The variety of data collected provided a stronger reliability around their findings as the data collected was of a large capacity. Data on a national level was collected from a survey of forces and a survey of PCSOs, by means of questionnaires. This is very reliable source of research as it done national and can be used as a national piece of evidence. On a local level three forces where chosen as case studies and from each force four areas were selected for a detailed study. Two of these areas were control areas where PCSOs had not been deployed, and the other two areas were where PCSOs had been deployed for some time. Across the four forces interviews were conducted in police forces to collect data on a wide range of issues including, PCSOs deployment, supervision, training, induction and integration. The interviews were conducted upon the PCSOs deployed two areas on similar questions. Also data was collected from the control areas after PCSOs were deployed on their impact on crime levels for a two week period. This is reliable as the range of evidence collected is immense, due to the interviews carried out over four different forces. Controls were used, for the data to be compared with, as this is very important. Crawford et al (2004) Crawford et al (2004) investigated if PCSOs and other members of the extended police family on how they can have impact on recorded crime. This study was funded by University of Leeds Centre for Criminal Justice Studies. Crawford et al compared trends in crime levels in the cities of Leeds and Bradford, also conducting a study which used a twin site public opinion survey to assess the impact of PCSOs on the public (2004). Hiley (2005) Hiley (2005) investigated if the public in the Gedling Borough of Nottingham felt PCSOs were effective. Hiley (2005) conducted its research by interviewing five hundred and one respondents. Sample size was taken at random, and respondents that declined were replaced. In analyzing these studies the findings of the report aims to answer aim three of the report to be conducted, all three studies are conducted in different regions and collated together can become a reliable source of data. Though it must be noted that each study was carried out in different years may hinder its reliability and validity. Nevertheless these studies are still relevant as they give a picture of the effectiveness of PCSOs at that time period. Another advantage of using these case studies is that information is readily available and modern, so it may still reflect the effectiveness of PCSOs to date. Chapter 1  ¬The Police Community Support Officers (PCSOs) and their Functionality Introduction History of the Police Community Support Officers Roles of Police Community Support Officers Powers of Police Community Support Officers Summary Introduction This chapter will present an overview of the history, role and powers of the Police Community Support Officers (PCSOs). The history section will look at how and why PCSOs were developed, followed by the explanation of the role and aims of the PCSOs. This chapter finishes of with providing knowledge around the powers of the PCSOs and how they have developed over time. History of Police Community Support Officers (PCSOs) It is essential for the reader to become aware of the history behind the development of the PCSOs as it explains how and why this type of service originated. Initially, police officers out on patrol had many different competing priorities and limited time to provide a swift response to urgent calls. The effect of this limitation of time resulted in many patrols becoming vehicle based and patrol tasks being interrupted by urgent incidents, custody requirements, paperwork, etc. The Neighbourhood Policing Programme 2007, states that there were ‘gaps in policing that bought about a combination of increasing demand and additional requirements on officers and forces’ (Neighbourhood policing programme 2007). It can be fair to say, that at this point in time the relationship between the police force and the local community may not have been as strong as expected because the prioritisation of tasks left meant some other tasks would not be complete. The National Evaluation of community support officers found that the public perception confirmed the need of extra support for officers, ‘there are too many calls on police officers time and long term disorder/behaviour issues are not dealt with effectively’(Home Office 2006). Therefore, it had become apparent that the police force clearly required more support in terms of man-power to tackle this time constraint. The Police Reform Act in 2002 (PRA) revolutionized policing; chief officers across the UK now had PCSOs at their disposal to support police activities (Rogers and Lewis 2007: 125). By 2008 the government anticipated the number of PCSOs would grow substantially from 6,000 to 24,000. (Newburn 2008:156). However, at the end of April 2007, the figures showed that there were 16,000 PCSOs employed (Home Office 2007:33). In September 2002, pilot schemes across six forces had allowed PCSOs to take to the streets, primarily to provide high visibility patrols and become the eyes and ears of the police (Greater Manchester Police 2009). PCSOs as part of the wider police family had created a significant impact by focusing upon the needs of the local community; engaging with the public and providing reassurance with their uniformed presence. The scheme was hailed a success, later became nationalised across England and Wales as well as in the British Transport Police (Greater Manchester Police 2009). With this recognition they are now an integral part of Neighbourhood Policing and can contribute towards effective policing. ‘Effective Neighbourhood policing goes a long way to meeting the needs of communities. The role of the PCSO is a vital one as they are very much the visible accessible presence of neighbourhood policing’ (Neighbourhood policing programme 2007). Roles of Police Community Support Officers The aim of PCSOs as uniformed staff; was to provide support to the work of police officers and work within the local community. Their objective was to assist police in areas which may require a certain level of police presence. In doing so, they may not necessarily have the expertise of trained police officers, but were able to facilitate by freeing up the time police officers spent on tackling low-level crime and routine tasks. In 2005, the Association of Chief Police Officers (ACPO) expressed the roles of the PCSO as follows:- â€Å"The policing of neighbourhoods, primarily through high visible patrol with the purpose of reassuring the public, increases orderliness in public places and being accessible to communities and partner agencies working at local level. The emphasis of this role, and the powers required to fulfill it, will vary from neighbourhood to neighbourhood and force to force† (ACPO 2005). From this it is evident that the main priority was to provide high visibility patrols, dealing with public queries and restoring order within the local community. The West Midlands Police Force confer with these aims and outline the PCSO objectives as follows; to primarily provide high visibility patrols, secondly help reduce the fear of crime, thirdly participate in the police initiative of tackling anti-social behaviour (ASB), fourthly provide support and assistance at public events and finally support the police officers in building and maintaining community relations (West Midlands police 2007). Ideally as long as PCSOs acted in these key roles as stated by ACPO and the West Midlands Police Force, then they would become successful and effective. One can only become effective if the roles given to them are completed and carried out at high standards. ‘Effectiveness is the ability to achieve stated goals or objectives’ (Environmental Protection Agency 2007). Arguably, it can be difficult to measure effectiveness as there can be limitations which influence the success rate of a task. For example, availability of ‘resources’ and in many cases ‘time’ is a crucial element, and may become a limiting factor. On the 17th July 2008, the Home Office issued a report regarding the activities undertaken by the PCSO. The report reviewed findings from a study on PSCO activity based on costing data in 2006/7. The results were indicative and notably equated PCSO activity with that defined by the guidance of ACPO (2005). Visible patrols were the most frequent activity carried out by PCSOs in 42 of 43 police forces. This report also suggested that not all PCSOs across forces spent time or much time upon the remaining listed objectives, which may possibly be an outcome of limiting factors such as time. In some tasks the actual ‘time spent’ may have superseded the ‘expected time’. To conclude, this report suggests that PCSOs were also carrying out extra roles not mentioned by ACPO. The summary of this report is attached in Appendix A. Retrospectively, it must be made clear to the reader that PCSOs are not sworn police officers as such, neither are they a replacement. They are a branch of modern day policing whose purpose is to provide that needed extra support to police officers. This can only mean that the powers allocated to PCSOs are limited to their purpose of serving the local community. Powers of Police Community Support Officers The functionality and effectiveness of PCSOs can be maintained with allocation of certain ‘powers’. This section will debate the powers given to PCSOs and discuss why these have evolved over the years. Initially, as outlined by PRA 2002, Chief Officers of each of the police force regions had the choice of selecting appropriate powers to implement their individual force initiatives alongside meeting the needs of the local community. ’Section 38 of the PRA enables a Chief Officer to designate an individual employed by the police authority but under his/her authority discretion and control as a PCSO and confer upon them any powers listed in Part 1 of Schedule 4 to the PRA’ (Clayden, 2006:40) This suggested that there was no standardization or common ground for powers allocated to PCSOs across the United Kingdom (U.K). PCSOs in different forces would have had different powers to deal with certain incidents. Therefore, this meant PCSOs in different forces, would have powers in dealing with certain incidents whereas others would lack the powers to deal with those incidents. For example, in 2006 the Chief Constable of Surrey police allocated different powers to PCSOs in different areas. The PCSOs in the area of Guildford Borough had the power to issue a Fixed Penalty notice (FPN) for littering. Where as the PCSOs in the area of Ash Wharf where given a different power, the power to issue a FPN for Graffiti and Fly posting (Surrey Police, 2006). It must be noted that these different powers may only help PCSOs tackle targeted crime for each area specifically. On the other hand this can also become a problem for PCSOs, since there is a difference in the selection of powers for PCSOs in areas and regions. If a person was to commit a graffiti offence in the area of Guildford Borough then the PCSOs located there would have no power to issue FPN for this crime, since the PCSOs in that area have not been allocated that power. Furthermore if someone was littering in the area of Ash Wharf, then the PCSOs located in this area do not have the power to issue a FPN for littering. Additionally, the difference in selection of powers can lead to confusion and debate regarding the role of the PCSO, which in turn reflects their effectiveness. The BBC news website on the 6th of December 2005 read ‘Police Community Support Officers, hailed as future of policing in London, are at the centre of a row about their role’ (BBC News, 2005) A standard set of powers would help to understand what PCSOs can and can not do, which in turn may help clarify their roles to the local community to whom they serve. In addition, it is crucial that the public becomes clear of the capabilities and powers of a PCSO, so that they are not overestimated. Overestimating the PCSOs powers and abilities can have devastating results, as it was in the heartbreaking case of Jordon Lyon on May the 3rd 2007 in Wigan (BBC News, 2007). This case saw two PCSOs being branded in the media for being incapable to save or attempt to save a drowning child in the pond, simply because they did not have water rescue training. The Times Newspaper on September 2007 headlined, â€Å"Failure to save drowning boy prompts calls to scrap ‘community’ police† (Times online, 2007) Though, unlike the PCSOs in Wigan, in Watford on 22nd October 2007 two PCSOs saved the life of a drowning woman in a canal in Watford (Watford Observer 2007). Clearly these two similar incidents raise confusion over the power of the PCSOs. Moreover these incidents could confuse people around the PCSOs capabilities, do they have water rescue training or not, what can they do? What can they not do? In one case the PCSO has the power and the capabilities to save a persons life preventing them from drowning and in another case they seem incapable and powerless in saving someone from drowning. PCSOs powers at this stage are not clear and seem to be questionable, which need to be dealt with. Five years on from their introduction and in response to the confusion over the role of PCSOs: from 1st of December 2007 PCSOs were set 20 standard powers and an additional 22 powers accessible to them at the discretion of the chief constable(Smith 2008:17). A full list of the standard and discretionary powers is set out in Appendix B; the list was obtained from the Home Office website (Home Office 2007). The enactment of these standardised powers will mean a more consistent role for PCSOs nationwide. It provides PCSOs with the tools to deal with low-level disorder and anti-social behaviour and to contribute effectively to local policing. However, there are still 22 powers that can be allocated by the Chief Constable which can cause a lack of consistency in PCSOs powers within different communities. Nonetheless, it is apparent from Louise Casey’